The Impact of Empathetic Leadership on Recruitment and Retention in Hong Kong's Pink-Collar SMEs
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.70301/Keywords:
empathetic leadership, job satisfaction, extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation, Hong Kong cultural identity, employee recruitment, employee retention, small and medium enterprise, SME, pink collar industry, Hong KongAbstract
This research investigates the labor shortage and employee retention challenges faced by small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in Hong Kong’s pink-collar sector and outlines the pathway for remediation. The research framework focuses on the causal chains linking Empathetic Leadership to Employee Recruitment and Retention through the mediating influence of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation, Job Satisfaction, and the moderating effect of Hong Kong Cultural Identity on the relationships between Empathetic Leadership and Intrinsic / Extrinsic Motivation.
A mixed methods approach was adopted for triangulation, combining quantitative and qualitative analyses through questionnaires and interviews with employers and employees. Statistical analyses, including ANOVA and PLS-SEM, validated the relationships among the constructs. Qualitative findings from the interviews were coded and decoded for themes and patterns to obtain and triangulate findings.
The practical implications of this research are to address the current literature gap and develop a holistic framework by providing insights into ongoing labor challenges and formulating possible solutions for retaining and recruiting pink-collar employees.
References
Abdul Basit, H., Khattak, A., Abbas, Q., Arsalan Abbas, S., & Hussain, A. (2022). Assessment of risk-taking behaviour of young motorcyclists at unsignalised intersections – A partial least squares structural equation modelling approach. Promet, 34(1), 135–147. https://doi.org/10.7307/ptt.v34i1.3872
Afthanorhan, A., Ghazali, P. L., & Rashid, N. (2021, May). Discriminant validity: A comparison of CBSEM and consistent PLS using Fornell & Larcker and HTMT approaches. In Journal of Physics: Conference Series (Vol. 1874, No. 1, p. 012085). IOP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1874/1/012085
Akbari, H., Bahrami, A., Dehghani Bidgoli, S., Karamali, F., & Hosseini, A. (2023). Using structural equation modelling to predict safety and health status among stone industries. La Medicina del Lavoro, 114(1), e2023005. https://doi.org/10.23749/mdl.v114i1.13365
Ali, B. J., & Anwar, G. (2021). An empirical study of employees’ motivation and its influence on job satisfaction. International Journal of Engineering, Business and Management, 5(2), 21–30. https://doi.org/10.22161/ijebm.5.2
Aljumah, A. (2023). The impact of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation on job satisfaction: The mediating role of transactional leadership. Cogent Business & Management, 10(3), 2270813. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2023.2270813
Alrawahi, S., Sellgren, S. F., Altouby, S., Alwahaibi, N., & Brommels, M. (2020). The application of Herzberg's two-factor theory of motivation to job satisfaction in clinical laboratories in Omani hospitals. Heliyon, 6(9), e04829. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04829
Alturki, R. (2021). Research onion for smart IoT-enabled mobile applications. Scientific Programming, 2021, 1–9.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/4270998
Andreas, D. (2022). Employee performance: The effect of motivation and job satisfaction. PRODUKTIF: Jurnal Kepegawaian Dan Organisasi, 1(1), Article 1. https://doi.org/10.37481/jko.v1i1.10
Anwar, A., Waqas, A., Shakeel, K., & Hassan, S. S. (2018). Impact of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on employee retention: A case from call center. International Journal of Academic Research in Business & Social
Aponte-Moreno, M. (2020). Immigration as a Leadership Crucible. ILA Intersections.
Arghode, V., Lathan, A., Alagaraja, M., Rajaram, K., & McLean, G. N. (2022). Empathic organizational culture and leadership: Conceptualizing the framework. European Journal of Training and Development, 46(1/2), 239–256. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-09-2020-0139
Bachtiar, N. K., & Amin, M. (2019). SMEs’ growth stage model: A literature review and development model. Jurnal Analisis Bisnis Ekonomi, 17(1), 1–18.
https://doi.org/10.31603/bisnisekonomi.v17i1.2605
Banerjee, P., Saini, G. K., & Kalyanaram, G. (2020). The role of brands in recruitment: Mediating role of employer brand equity. Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources, 58(2), 173–196. https://doi.org/10.1111/1744-7941.12209
Bano, A., Ashraf, S., Khan, M., Khan, M. M., & Mehmood, S. (2021). Negative Events at Workplace and In Role Performance: Implications of Affective Events Theory (AET). Journal of Contemporary Issues in Business & Government, 27(3). DOI: 10.47750/cibg.2021.27.03.299
Barigozzi, F., & Burani, N. (2019). Competition for talent when firms’ mission matters. Games and Economic Behavior, 116, 128–151.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geb.2019.04.012
Barnes, T. D., Beall, V. D., & Holman, M. R. (2021). Pink-collar representation and budgetary outcomes in US states. Legislative Studies Quarterly, 46(1), 119–154. https://doi.org/10.1111/lsq.12286
Bastian, F., & Poussing, N. (2023). Analyzing the employee/employer relationships in the corporate social responsibility context: An empirical investigation of SMEs. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 30(4), 2011–2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/csr.2470
Becker, J. M., Cheah, J. H., Gholamzade, R., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2023). PLS-SEM’s most wanted guidance. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 35(1), 321–346. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-04-2022-0474
Beugelsdijk, S., & Welzel, C. (2018). Dimensions and dynamics of national culture: Synthesizing Hofstede with Inglehart. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 49(10), 1469–1505. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022118798505
Bhattarai, G., & Shah, K. (2021). Status of intrinsic motivation of the white-collar employees: Is everyone equally motivated?. NCC Journal, 6(1), 43-50.
Bianchi, L. (2021). Exploring ways of defining the relationship between research philosophy and research practice. Journal of Emergent Science, 20.
Bianco, D., Bueno, A., Godinho Filho, M., Latan, H., Ganga, G. M. D., Frank, A. G., & Jabbour, C. J. C. (2023). The role of Industry 4.0 in developing resilience for manufacturing companies during COVID-19. International Journal of Production Economics, 256, 108728. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpe.2022.108728
Borst, R. T. (2022). Stressed versus motivated public employees: a systematic review of the motivation and stress literatures through a contextualized job demands-resources model. Research Handbook on Motivation in Public Administration, 354-376. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781789906806.00032
Campbell, S., Greenwood, M., Prior, S., Shearer, T., Walkem, K., Young, S., Bywaters, D., & Walker, K. (2020). Purposive sampling: Complex or simple? Research case examples. Journal of Research in Nursing, 25(8), 652–661. https://doi.org/10.1177/1744987120927206
Chan, C. (2022). Culture and identity. In Hong Kong history (pp. 157–180). Springer Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-2806-1_7
Chandrakumara, P. M. K. (2013). Human resources management practices in small and medium enterprises in two emerging economies in Asia: Indonesia and South Korea. Annual SEAANZ Conference, Small Enterprise Association of Australia and New Zealand, 1-15.
Chang, W., & Busser, J. A. (2020). Hospitality career retention: The role of contextual factors and thriving at work. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 32(1), 193–211.
https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-10-2018-0831
Chen, G., & Kirkman, B. L. (2024). The study of work motivation across cultures: A review and directions for future research. In M. J. Gelfand & M. Erez (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Cross-Cultural Organizational Behavior, 161. Oxford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190085384.013.7
Chow, S., Fu, K., & Ng, Y.-L. (2020). Development of the Hong Kong identity scale: Differentiation between Hong Kong ‘locals’ and Mainland Chinese in cultural and civic domains. Journal of Contemporary China, 29(124), 568–584. https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2019.1677365
Czapran, T. B. (2022). Cultural diversity: National culture and its impact on motivation. Politics and Security, 6(3), 11–28.
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7128966
Dasan, D. N. B. (2022). An empirical study on the impact of employee retention in IT companies on employer branding with reference to Chennai City. Journal of Positive School Psychology, 6, 3687–3697.
Davison, A. C., & Hinkley, D. V. (1997). Bootstrap Methods and Their Application. Cambridge University Press.
De Juana-Espinosa, S., & Rakowska, A. (2018). Public sector motivational practices and their effect on job satisfaction: Country differences. European Journal of Management and Business Economics, 27(2), 141–154.
https://doi.org/10.1108/EJMBE-02-2018-0027
De Sousa Sabbagha, M., Ledimo, O., & Martins, N. (2018). Predicting staff retention from employee motivation and job satisfaction. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 28(2), 136–140. https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2018.1454578
De Winter, J. C. (2019). Using the Student's t-test with extremely small sample sizes. Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation, 18(1), Article 10.
https://doi.org/10.7275/e4r6-dj05
Deliu, D. (2019). Empathetic leadership: Key element for inspiring strategic management and a visionary effective corporate governance. Journal of Emerging Trends in Marketing and Management, 1(1), 280–292.
Dewey, B. I. (2020). The power of empathetic and collaborative leadership. Library Leadership & Management, 34(2), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.5860/llm.v34i2.7427
Dhaneesh, R., Iswarya, V. S., & Anand, S. T. (2025). An analysis of stress burnout and work engagement of paternalistic leadership using job demand-resource (JD-R) model. Rajagiri Management Journal. https://doi.org/10.1108/RAMJ-12-2023-0343
Dilmaghani, M., & Tabvuma, V. (2019). No rosy glasses in bluesy ghettos? Job satisfaction of pink and blue collar workers and the comparable worth legislations. Labor History, 60(4), 392–407. https://doi.org/10.1080/0023656X.2019.1552680
Dunay, A., Dunay, A., Nagy, T. Z., & Illés, B. C. (2017). Organizational culture assessment – A case study of Hungary and Austria. In B. C. Illés, M. Nowicka-Skowron, & E. Horská (Eds.), Management and Organization: Concepts, Tools and Applications (pp. 173–182). Pearson. https://doi.org/10.18515/dBEM.M2017.n02.ch14
Efron, B. (1987). Better bootstrap confidence intervals. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 82(397), 171–185. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1987.10478410
Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajtas.20160501.11
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.-G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 175-191.
Farquhar, J., Michels, N., & Robson, J. (2020). Triangulation in industrial qualitative case study research: Widening the scope. Industrial Marketing Management, 87, 160–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indmarman.2020.02.001
Febrianti, N. T., Suharto, & Wachyudi. (2020). The effect of career development and motivation on employee performance through job satisfaction in PT Jabar Jaya Perkasa. International Journal of Business and Social Science Research, 1(2), Article 2. https://doi.org/10.47742/ijbssr.v1n2p3
Fithri, P., Hasan, A., Syafrizal, S., & Games, D. (2024). Validation studies a questionnaire developed to measure incubator business technology performance using PLS-SEM approach. Andalasian International Journal of Applied Science, Engineering and Technology, 4(1), 64–78.
https://doi.org/10.25077/aijaset.v4i1.132
Flynn, S. V., & Korcuska, J. S. (2018). Credible phenomenological research: A mixed-methods study. Counselor Education and Supervision, 57(1), 34–50.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ceas.12092
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.2307/3151312
Fuller, L. P. (2023). Empathetic leadership: Motivating organizational citizenship behavior and strengthening leader-member exchange relationships. International Business Research (Toronto), 16(3), 38–45.
https://doi.org/10.5539/ibr.v16n3p38
Ghasemy, M., Sirat, M., Rosa-Díaz, I. M., & Martín-Ruiz, D. (2021). Causes and consequences of academics’ emotions in private higher education institutions: implications for policy and practice through the lens of affective events theory. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 20(3), 367-393. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10671-020-09288-0
Gheitani, A., Imani, S., Seyyedamiri, N., & Foroudi, P. (2019). Mediating effect of intrinsic motivation on the relationship between Islamic work ethic, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment in the banking sector. International Journal of Islamic and Middle Eastern Finance and Management, 12(1), 76–95. https://doi.org/10.1108/IMEFM-01-2018-0029
Gimenez‐Nadal, J. I., Molina, J. A., & Velilla, J. (2019). Modelling commuting time in the US: Bootstrapping techniques to avoid overfitting. Papers in Regional Science, 98(4), 1667–1685. https://doi.org/10.1111/pirs.12424
Gonçalves, T. (2018). Labour motivation (SSRN Scholarly Paper No. 3216044).
https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3216044
Goodall, A. A. (2024). Investigating the perceived glass ceiling: Role of empowerment on job satisfaction and employee well-being (Doctoral dissertation, Alliant International University).
Gu, M., Li Tan, J. H., Amin, M., Mostafiz, M. I., & Yeoh, K. K. (2022). Revisiting the moderating role of culture between job characteristics and job satisfaction: A multilevel analysis of 33 countries. Employee Relations, 44(1), 70–93. https://doi.org/10.1108/ER-03-2020-0099
Ha, H. K., Jun, K. S., & Bae, G. K. (2020). The effects of motivation on job satisfaction: Focused on self-actualization. Culinary Science & Hospitality Research, 26(9), 52–59. https://doi.org/10.20878/cshr.2020.26.9.006
Hadziahmetovic, N., Tandir, N., & Dzambic, A. (2023). A research review of leadership styles. International Journal of Academic Research in Economics and Management Sciences, 12(1), 166–182.
Hair, J., & Alamer, A. (2022). Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) in second language and education research: Guidelines using an applied example. Research Methods in Applied Linguistics, 1(3), 100027. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmal.2022.100027
Hair, J., Hair Jr., J. F., Sarstedt, M., Ringle, C. M., & Gudergan, S. P. (2023). Advanced Issues in Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling. SAGE Publications.
Hair Jr., J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., Sarstedt, M., Danks, N. P., Ray, S., ... & Ray, S. (2021). Evaluation of formative measurement models. In Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) Using R: A Workbook (pp. 91–113). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80519-7_5
Hair Jr., J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., Sarstedt, M., Danks, N. P., & Ray, S. (2021). Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) Using R: A Workbook (1st ed.). Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80519-7
Hair Jr., J. F., Matthews, L. M., Matthews, R. L., & Sarstedt, M. (2017). PLS-SEM or CB-SEM: Updated guidelines on which method to use. International Journal of Multivariate Data Analysis, 1(2), 107–123.
https://doi.org/10.1504/IJMDA.2017.087624
Hämmig, O. (2014). Prevalence and health correlates of work-life conflict among blue- and white-collar workers from different economic sectors. Frontiers in Public Health, 2, 221. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2014.00221
Haralayya, B. (2021). Employee job satisfaction at Big Bazaar. Iconic Research and Engineering Journals, 4(12), 197–206.
Hennequin, E. (2007). What "career success" means to blue-collar workers. Career Development International, 12(6), 565–581.
https://doi.org/10.1108/13620430710822029
Hilkenmeier, F., Bohndick, C., Bohndick, T., & Hilkenmeier, J. (2020). Assessing distinctiveness in multidimensional instruments without access to raw data – a manifest Fornell-Larcker criterion. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 223.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00223
HK Labour Rights Monitor. (2024). The State of Labour in Hong Kong 2023. https://hklabourrights.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/State_of_Labour_in_Hong_Kong_2023-1.pdf
Hom, P. W., Lee, T. W., Shaw, J. D., & Hausknecht, J. P. (2017). One hundred years of employee turnover theory and research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(3), 530–545. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000103
Hu, X., Kaplan, S., & Dalal, R. S. (2010). An examination of blue-versus white-collar workers’ conceptualizations of job satisfaction facets. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 76(2), 317–325.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2009.10.014
Huang, T.-P. (2011). Comparing motivating work characteristics, job satisfaction, and turnover intention of knowledge workers and blue-collar workers, and testing a structural model of the variables’ relationships in China and Japan. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22(4), 924–944. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2011.555134
Humphrey, R. H., Kellett, J. B., Sleeth, R. G., Miao, C., & Qian, S. (2019). The importance of empathy as a distal leadership attribute in the emergence of leaders in small groups. In Emotions and Leadership (pp. 159-175). Emerald Publishing Limited. https://doi.org/10.1108/S1746-979120190000015012
Htun, W. T., & Bhaumik, A. (2022). Employees' job satisfaction and retention at workplace. Journal of Positive School Psychology, 6(3), 4342–4346.
Irfan, S., & Marzuki, N. A. (2018). Hierarchy culture as a moderator on the relationship between work motivation and work commitment. Indian Journal of Positive Psychology, 9(1), 89-96. https://doi.org/10.15614/ijpp.v9i01.n749
Inegbedion, H., Inegbedion, E., Peter, A., & Harry, L. (2020). Perception of workload balance and employee job satisfaction in work organisations. Heliyon, 6(1), e03160.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03160
Irabor, I., & Okolie, U. C. (2019). A review of employees’ job satisfaction and its effect on their retention. Annals of ‘Spiru Haret’ University. Economic Series (English Ed.), 19(2), 93-114. https://doi.org/10.26458/1924
Jamal Ali, B., & Anwar, G. (2021). An empirical study of employees’ motivation and its influence on job satisfaction. International Journal of Engineering, Business and Management, 5(2), 21–30. https://doi.org/10.22161/ijebm.5.2.3
Jenny, G. J., Bauer, G. F., Füllemann, D., Broetje, S., & Brauchli, R. (2020). “Resources-demands ratio”: Translating the JD-R-model for company stakeholders. Journal of Occupational Health, 62(1), e12101. https://doi.org/10.1002/1348-9585.12101
Jha, J. K., & Pandey, J. (2015). Linking ethical positions and organizational commitment: The mediating role of job satisfaction. South Asian Journal of Management, 22(4), 63.
Jia, H., Iqbal, S., & Ayub, A. (2023). “Entrepreneurship” from the lens of enlightenment: Impacts of religiosity and spiritual intelligence on social entrepreneurial intentions. PloS One, 18(10), e0285140.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0285140
Jones, A. S. (2019). Cyberbullying and the workplace: An analysis of job satisfaction and social self-efficacy (Doctoral dissertation, The University of Iowa).
Judge, T. A., Weiss, H. M., Kammeyer-Mueller, J. D., & Hulin, C. L. (2017). Job attitudes, job satisfaction, and job affect: A century of continuity and of change. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102(3), 356–374.
https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000181
Judge, T. A., Zhang, S. C., & Glerum, D. R. (2020). Job satisfaction. In Essentials of Job Attitudes and Other Workplace Psychological Constructs (pp. 207–241).
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429325755
Kaasa, A. (2021). Merging Hofstede, Schwartz, and Inglehart into a single system. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 52(4), 339–353.
https://doi.org/10.1177/00220221211011244
Kampf, R., Lorincova, S., Kapustina, L. M., & Ližbetinová, L. (2017). Motivation level and its comparison between senior managers and blue-collar workers in small and medium-sized transport enterprises. Komunikácie, 19(4), 43–49.
https://doi.org/10.26552/com.C.2017.4.43-49
Kang, H. (2021). Sample size determination and power analysis using the G* Power software. Journal of educational evaluation for health professions, 18. https://doi.org/10.3352/jeehp.2021.18.17
Kamran, F. A. (2018). Impact of leader's empathy on employees' state of amotivation to work.: A case study of Lidl in Sweden. University of Gävle, Faculty of Education and Business Studies, Department of Business and Economic Studies.
Karthikeyani, V. (2020). A review of employees' job satisfaction and its effect on their retention. International Journal on Global Business Management & Research, 9(2), 52–59.
Kertai-Kiss, I. (2014). The embedded nature of entrepreneurship. Monography-V4, University of Belgrade, 131–147.
Kitsios, F., & Kamariotou, M. (2021). Job satisfaction behind motivation: An empirical study in public health workers. Heliyon, 7(4), e06857.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06857
Kock, N., Mayfield, M., Mayfield, J., Sexton, S., & De La Garza, L. M. (2019). Empathetic leadership: How leader emotional support and understanding influences follower performance. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 26(2), 217–236.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051818806290
Könsgen, R., Schaarschmidt, M., Ivens, S., & Munzel, A. (2018). Finding meaning in contradiction on employee review sites: Effects of discrepant online reviews on job application intentions. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 43, 165–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intmar.2018.05.001
Kostelić, K., Gonan Božac, M., & Paulišić, M. (2024). Exploring interpersonal conflicts within the JD-R model: aggregation and validation in the context of elementary school employees in Croatia. Cogent business & management, 11(1), 2370451. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2024.2370451
Küçük, B. A., & Konuk, H. (2023). An investigation of the relationship between subordinate–manager conflict and job satisfaction in a cross-cultural context: An affective events theory approach. International Journal of Conflict Management, 34(5), 1004-1040. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCMA-11-2022-0198
Kyngäs, H. (2020). Inductive content analysis. In The application of content analysis in nursing science research (pp. 13–21). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30199-6_2
Lai, I. K. W. (2015). The roles of value, satisfaction, and commitment in the effect of service quality on customer loyalty in Hong Kong-style tea restaurants. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 56(1), 118–138.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1938965514556149
Law, K. Y., & Lee, K. M. (2006). Citizenship, economy, and social exclusion of mainland Chinese immigrants in Hong Kong. Journal of Contemporary Asia, 36(2), 217–242. https://doi.org/10.1080/00472330680000131
Lindberg, K. S. (2023, April 4). Hong Kong’s workforce sees its biggest drop in almost 40 years. Bloomberg. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-04-04/hong-kong-labor-force-sees-biggest-plummet-since-1985
Linvill, J. S., & Onosu, G. O. (2023). Stories of leadership: Leading with empathy through the COVID-19 pandemic. Sustainability, 15(9), 7708.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su15097708
Lorincová, S., Hitka, M., Štarchoň, P., & Stachová, K. (2018). Strategic instrument for sustainability of human resource management in small and medium-sized enterprises using management data. Sustainability, 10(10), 3687.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su10103687
Maiti, M., & Vuković, D. (2020). Role of human assets in measuring firm performance and its implication for firm valuation. Journal of Economic Structures, 9(47), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40008-020-00223-3
Masitoh, S., & Sudarma, K. (2019). The influence of emotional intelligence and spiritual intelligence on job satisfaction with employee performance as an intervening variable. Management Analysis Journal, 8(1), 98-107. https://doi.org/10.15294/maj.v8i1.26389
Melnikovas, A. (2018). Towards an explicit research methodology: Adapting research onion model for futures studies. Journal of Futures Studies, 23(2), 29–44. https://doi.org/10.6531/JFS.201812_23(2).0003
Memon, M. A., Cheah, J.-H., Ramayah, T., Ting, H., & Chuah, F. (2018). Mediation analysis: Issues and recommendations. Journal of Applied Structural Equation Modelling, 2(1), i–ix. https://doi.org/10.47263/JASEM.2(1)01
Michelucci, U., & Venturini, F. (2021). Estimating neural network’s performance with bootstrap: A tutorial. Machine Learning and Knowledge Extraction, 3(2), 357–373. https://doi.org/10.3390/make3020018
Mishra, P., Singh, U., Pandey, C., Mishra, P., & Pandey, G. (2019). Application of student’s t-test, analysis of variance, and covariance. Annals of Cardiac Anaesthesia, 22(4), 407–411. https://doi.org/10.4103/aca.aca_94_19
Mohammad, J., Quoquab, F., Halimah, S., & Thurasamy, R. (2019). Workplace internet leisure and employees’ productivity: The mediating role of employee satisfaction. Internet Research, 29(4), 725–748. https://doi.org/10.1108/IntR-05-2017-0191
Moncarz, E., Zhao, J., & Kay, C. (2009). An exploratory study of US lodging properties' organizational practices on employee turnover and retention. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 21(4), 437–458. https://doi.org/10.1108/09596110910955695
Morello, A., Issa, R. R. A., & Franz, B. (2018). Exploratory study of recruitment and retention of women in the construction industry. Journal of Professional Issues in Engineering Education and Practice, 144(2). https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EI.1943-5541.0000359
Morse, J. M. (2016). Mixed Method Design: Principles and Procedures. Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315424538
Mueller, J. T., McConnell, K., Burow, P. B., Pofahl, K., Merdjanoff, A. A., & Farrell, J. (2021). Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on rural America. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(1), 2019378118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2019378118
Mutisi, E. C. (2019). Turning up the 'pink collar': Comprehending the experiences and coping mechanisms of men in pink-collar trades [Doctoral dissertation, ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]. ProQuest.
https://www.proquest.com/docview/2521059817/abstract/?pq-origsite=primo
Muwardi, D., Saide, S., Indrajit, R. E., Iqbal, M., Astuti, E. S., & Herzavina, H. (2020). Intangible resources and institution performance: The concern of intellectual capital, employee performance, job satisfaction, and its impact on organizational performance. International Journal of Innovation Management, 24(5), Article 2150009. https://doi.org/10.1142/S1363919621500092
Ng, H. Y. (2022). Negotiating identity through emigration: Value, aspiration, and the anthropology of the future—A Hong Kong case study [Doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania].
Nitschinsk, L., Tobin, S. J., Varley, D., & Vanman, E. J. (2023). Why do people sometimes wear an anonymous mask? Motivations for seeking anonymity online. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin.
https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672231210465
Ohana, D., Wassermann, B., Dupuis, N., Kolodner, E., Raichstein, E., & Malka, M. (2022, March). Hybrid anomaly detection and prioritization for network logs at cloud scale. Proceedings of the Seventeenth European Conference on Computer Systems, 236–250. https://doi.org/10.1145/3492321.3519566
Oncioiu, I., Popescu, D.-M., Anghel, E., Petrescu, A.-G., Bilcan, F.-R., & Petrescu, M. (2020). Online company reputation—a thorny problem for optimizing corporate sustainability. Sustainability, 12(14), 5547.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su12145547
Paais, M., & Pattiruhu, J. R. (2020). Effect of motivation, leadership, and organizational culture on satisfaction and employee performance. The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics, and Business, 7(8), 577–588.
Pananrangi, M., Lewangka, O., & Sudirman, I. (2020). The influence of motivation and job satisfaction on employee performance in PT. Son Karella Mare. Hasanuddin Journal of Applied Business and Entrepreneurship, 3(2), 20–32.
Panigrahi, S. K., & Al-Nashash, H. M. (2019). Quality work ethics and job satisfaction: An empirical analysis. Quality Access to Success, 20(168), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3515072
Pansini, M., Buonomo, I., & Benevene, P. (2024). Fostering Sustainable Workplace Through Leaders’ Compassionate Behaviors: Understanding the Role of Employee Well-Being and Work Engagement. Sustainability, 16(23), 10697. https://doi.org/10.3390/su162310697
Papageorgiou, S. N. (2022). On correlation coefficients and their interpretation. Journal of Orthodontics, 49(3), 359–361.
https://doi.org/10.1177/14653125221076142
Perugini, M., Gallucci, M., & Costantini, G. (2018). A practical primer to power analysis for simple experimental designs. Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale, 31(1), 1-23. https://dx.doi.org/10.5334/IRSP.181
Pham, T. T. L., Teng, C. I., Friesner, D., Li, K., Wu, W. E., Liao, Y. N., ... & Chu, T. L. (2019). The impact of mentor–mentee rapport on nurses’ professional turnover intention: perspectives of social capital theory and social cognitive career theory. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 28(13-14), 2669-2680. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.14858
Popa, I., Ștefan, S. C., Albu, C. F., Popa, Ș. C., & Vlad, C. (2020). The impact of national culture on employees’ attitudes toward heavy work investment: Comparative approach Romania vs. Japan. Amfiteatru Economic, 22(SI 14), 1014–1029. https://doi.org/10.24818/EA/2020/S14/1014
Prajapati, A., & Patel, N. K. (2017). Empirical study of factors affecting employer branding. Journal of Strategic Human Resource Management, 6(2), 17–27.
Purwadi, D. C. D., Febrianti, W., & Mirwansyah, D. (2020). Exploration of leadership, organizational culture, job satisfaction, and employee performance. Technium Social Sciences Journal, 6, 116–130. https://doi.org/10.47577/tssj.v6i1.242
Purwanto, A. (2021). Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) analysis for social and management research: A literature review. Journal of Industrial Engineering & Management Research, 2(4), 23–30.
https://doi.org/10.7777/jiemar.v2i4
Radic, A., Arjona-Fuentes, J. M., Ariza-Montes, A., Han, H., & Law, R. (2020). Job demands–job resources (JD-R) model, work engagement, and well-being of cruise ship employees. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 88, 102518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2020.102518
Raina, R. (2022). Moving crisis to opportunities: A corporate perspective on the impact of compassionate empathic behaviour on the well-being of employees. International Journal of Global Business and Competitiveness, 17(2), 239–255. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42943-021-00040-w
Raithel, K., van Knippenberg, D., & Stam, D. (2021). Team leadership and team cultural diversity: The moderating effects of leader cultural background and leader team tenure. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 28(3), 261–272. https://doi.org/10.1177/15480518211010763
Ramaci, T., Santisi, G., Curatolo, K., & Barattucci, M. (2024). Perceived organizational support moderates the effect of job demands on outcomes: Testing the JD-R model in Italian oncology nurses. Palliative & Supportive Care, 22(5), 1338-1346. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1478951524000890
Ramos, C. M., & Casado-Molina, A.-M. (2021). Online corporate reputation: A panel data approach and a reputation index proposal applied to the banking sector. Journal of Business Research, 122, 121–130.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.08.061
Raudeliūnienė, J. (2018). Basic research methods. In Modernizing the Academic Teaching and Research Environment (pp. 47–70). Springer International Publishing AG. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74173-4_3
Research Office, Legislative Council Secretariat. (2023, July 4). Manpower shortage in Hong Kong, Statistical Highlights, ISSH13/2023.
https://app7.legco.gov.hk/rpdb/en/uploads/2023/ISSH/ISSH13_2023_20230704_en.pdf
Rice, D. B., Taylor, R. M., Wang, Y., Wei, S., & Ge, V. (2023). My company cares about my success…I think: Clarifying why and when a firm’s ethical reputation impacts employees’ subjective career success. Journal of Business Ethics, 186(1), 159–177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-022-05143-9
Rivera, L. A. (2020). Employer decision making. Annual Review of Sociology, 46(1), 215–232. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-121919-054633
Rogers, K. (2018). Do your employees feel respected? Harvard Business Review, 96(4).
Rutkowska, M., & Sulich, A. (2020). Green jobs on the background of Industry 4.0. Procedia Computer Science, 176, 1231–1240.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2020.09.132
Salas, K. M. (2022). Supervising with empathy at the core. In Achieving Equity in Higher Education Using Empathy as a Guiding Principle (pp. 28–47). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-7998-9746-0.ch002
Sang, G., Yuan, C., Wang, M., Chen, J., Han, X., & Zhang, R. (2022). What causes burnout in special school physical education teachers? Evidence from China. Sustainability, 14(20), 13037. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142013037
Sarraf, A. R. A. (2018). Relationship between emotional labor and intrinsic job satisfaction: The moderating role of gender. Journal of Entrepreneurship and Organization Management, 7(227), 2. https://doi.org/10.4172/2169-026X.1000227
Sarstedt, M., & Liu, Y. (2024). Advanced marketing analytics using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Journal of Marketing Analytics. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41270-023-00279-7
Sarstedt, M., Ringle, C. M., & Hair, J. F. (2014). PLS-SEM: Looking back and moving forward. Long Range Planning, 47(3), 132–137.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lrp.2014.02.008
Saunders, M. N. K., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2020). Research Methods for Business Students. Pearson.
Scheepers, R. A., Vollmann, M., Cramm, J. M., & Nieboer, A. P. (2023). Empathic nurses with sufficient job resources are work‐engaged professionals who deliver more individualized care. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 32(19-20), 7321-7329. https://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.16830
Shehata, A. W., Scheme, E. J., & Sensinger, J. W. (2018). Audible feedback improves internal model strength and performance of myoelectric prosthesis control. Scientific Reports, 8(1), 8541. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-26810-w
Silva, A. M. C. (2020). Blue-Collar Job: Stress and Job Satisfaction. CCT College Dublin.
Simić, M., Slavković, M., & Aleksić, V. S. (2020). Human capital and SME performance: Mediating effect of entrepreneurial leadership. Management: Journal of Sustainable Business and Management Solutions in Emerging Economies, 25(3), 23–33.
Simkus, J. (2022). Convenience sampling: Definition, method and examples. Nurse Researcher. Retrieved October 6, 2022 from https://www.researchgate.net.
Smith, J., & Garriety, S. (2020). The art of flexibility: Bridging five generations in the workforce. Strategic HR Review, 19(3), 107–110.
https://doi.org/10.1108/SHR-01-2020-0005
Stankovska, G., Angelkoska, S., Osmani, F., & Grncarovska, S. P. (2017). Job motivation and job satisfaction among academic staff in higher education. In Bulgarian Comparative Education Society. Bulgarian Comparative Education Society.
http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/detail?accno=ED574225
Steers, R. M., & Sánchez‐Runde, C. J. (2017). Culture, motivation, and work behavior. In The Blackwell Handbook of Cross‐Cultural Management (pp. 190–216). Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405164030.ch10
Stratton, S. J. (2021). Population research: Convenience sampling strategies. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, 36(4), 373–374. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049023X21000649
Sundler, A. J., Lindberg, E., Nilsson, C., & Palmér, L. (2019). Qualitative thematic analysis based on descriptive phenomenology. Nursing Open, 6(3), 733–739.
https://doi.org/10.1002/nop2.275
Taherdoost, H. (2019). What is the best response scale for survey and questionnaire design; Review of different lengths of rating scale / attitude scale / Likert scale. Post-Print, Hamed Taherdoost, 1–10. Article hal-02557308.
https://ideas.repec.org//p/hal/journl/hal-02557308.html
Tenenhaus, M., Vinzi, V. E., Chatelin, Y.-M., & Lauro, C. (2005). PLS path modeling. Computational Statistics & Data Analysis, 48(1), 159–205.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csda.2004.03.005
Theresia, L., Lahuddin, A. H., Ranti, G., & Bangun, R. (2018). The influence of culture, job satisfaction, and motivation on the performance of lecturers/employees. In Proceedings of the 8th Annual International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management (pp. 2541–2552).
Trade and Industry Department. (2023, July). Hong Kong: The Facts. Trade and Industry. https://www.gov.hk/en/about/abouthk/factsheets/docs/trade_industry.pdf
Tuffour, I. (2017). A critical overview of interpretative phenomenological analysis: A contemporary qualitative research approach. Journal of Healthcare Communications, 02(04). https://doi.org/10.4172/2472-1654.100093
Turyakira, P. K. (2018). Ethical practices of small and medium-sized enterprises in developing countries: Literature analysis. South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences, 21(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajems.v21i1.1756
Upadhyaya, M., & Ayari, A. (2019). Relationship between employer branding, employee retention and commitment in pharmaceutical industry: An empirical investigation. Proceedings on Engineering Sciences/Proceedings on Engineering Sciences, 1(2), 501–520. https://doi.org/10.24874/PES01.02.049
Vears, D. F., & Gillam, L. (2022). Inductive content analysis: A guide for beginning qualitative researchers. Focus on Health Professional Education: A Multi-Professional Journal, 23(1), Article 1. 111–127. https://doi.org/10.11157/fohpe.v23i1.544
Vehovar, V., Toepoel, V., & Steinmetz, S. (2016). Non-probability sampling. The Sage handbook of survey methods, 1(2016), 329-345.
Vo, T. T. D., Tuliao, K. V., & Chen, C.-W. (2022). Work motivation: The roles of individual needs and social conditions. Behavioral Sciences, 12(2), 49. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs12020049
Wasim, S. M. S., & Rehman, M. U. (2022). Role of transformational leadership style of accounting professionals towards subordinates' performance, OCB, and innovation: Mediating effect of integrity and thriving. Journal of Entrepreneurship, Management, and Innovation, 4(1), Article 1.
https://doi.org/10.52633/jemi.v4i1.147
West, C., Ricks, J., Strachan, C., Iacono, J., & Shay, C. (2019). Factors that Influence Recruitment and Retention. The University of Akron.
Williams, C. E., Thomas, J. S., Bennett, A. A., Banks, G. C., Toth, A., Dunn, A. M., ... & Gooty, J. (2024). The role of discrete emotions in job satisfaction: A meta‐analysis. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 45(1), 97-116. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2747
Williams, H. (2021). The meaning of “phenomenology”: Qualitative and philosophical phenomenological research methods. The Qualitative Report, 26(2), 366–385. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2021.4587
Wong, K. K.-K. (2013). Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) techniques using SmartPLS. Marketing Bulletin, 24(1), 1–32.
Yang, F. H., & Chang, C. C. (2008). Emotional labour, job satisfaction and organizational commitment amongst clinical nurses: A questionnaire survey. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 45(6), 879–887. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2007.02.001
Ye, S., & Ng, T. K. (2019). Value change in response to cultural priming: The role of cultural identity and the impact on subjective well-being. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 70, 89–103.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2019.03.003
Yeung, P. (2023, July). Businesses taxed by labour crunch. The Bulletin, Hong Kong General Chamber of Commerce.
https://www.chamber.org.hk/en/information/the-bulletin_detail.aspx?id=1096
Yilmaz, A. (2020). Change management and cultural factors: A study of German and Chinese middle-managers’ behaviour in Sino-German automobile joint ventures. University of Gloucestershire Repository. https://eprints.glos.ac.uk/8975/
Yin, R. K. (2018). Case Study Research and Application, Design and Methods (6th ed.). SAGE Publications.
Yue, C. A., Thelen, P. D., & Walden, J. (2023). How empathetic leadership communication mitigates employees' turnover intention during COVID-19-related organizational change. Management Decision, 61(5), 1413–1433.
https://doi.org/10.1108/MD-01-2022-0011
Zaharee, M., Lipkie, T., Mehlman, S. K., & Neylon, S. K. (2018). Recruitment and retention of early-career technical talent: What young employees want from employers. Research Technology Management, 61(5), 51–61.
https://doi.org/10.1080/08956308.2018.1495966
Zhang, Y., Shum, C., & Belarmino, A. (2023). “Best employers”: The impacts of employee reviews and employer awards on job seekers' application intentions. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly, 64(3), 298–306.
https://doi.org/10.1177/19389655221130741
Zhao, X., Lynch, J. G., & Chen, Q. (2010). Reconsidering Baron and Kenny: Myths and truths about mediation analysis. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(2), 197–206. https://doi.org/10.1086/651257
Zhou, Y., Zhu, R., & Zheng, X. (2020). Second language skills and labor market outcomes: Evidence from the handover of Hong Kong. China Economic Review, 59, Article 101366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chieco.2019.101366
Zhu, Y.-Q., Gardner, D. G., & Chen, H.-G. (2018). Relationships between work team climate, individual motivation, and creativity. Journal of Management, 44(5), 2094–2115. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206316638161
Živković, S. (2022). Empathy in leadership: How it enhances effectiveness. In Economic and Social Development: Book of Proceedings (pp. 454–467).
Additional Files
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Royan Lam (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Publication Agreement
This Publication Agreement ("Agreement") is made between the author(s) ("Author") and the SBS Journal of Applied Business Research ("Journal"). By submitting a manuscript for publication, the Author agrees to the following terms:
1. Grant of License
The Author retains full copyright ownership of the submitted and published work. The Author grants the Journal a non-exclusive license to publish, distribute, and archive the article in any format or medium, including but not limited to online and print versions.
2. Open Access and Licensing
All articles published in the Journal are fully open access under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). This means that:
• The work can be freely used, shared, and adapted by anyone, provided that proper attribution is given to the original Author.
• The full license terms can be found at https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
• No additional restrictions are placed on the use of published articles.
3. Author Responsibilities and Warranties
The Author guarantees that:
• The submitted work is original and has not been published or submitted for publication elsewhere.
• The work does not infringe on any third-party rights, including copyright, trademark, or proprietary rights.
• All necessary permissions for copyrighted materials used in the manuscript (e.g., figures, tables) have been obtained.
• The manuscript complies with ethical research standards and does not contain any form of plagiarism or falsified data.
4. Editorial and Publication Process
• The Journal reserves the right to perform editorial revisions for clarity, formatting, and consistency while maintaining the integrity of the Author’s work.
• The publication of an article is subject to peer review, and acceptance is not guaranteed upon submission.
5. Retraction and Corrections
• The Journal follows COPE (Committee on Publication Ethics) guidelines and reserves the right to retract, correct, or withdraw an article in cases of misconduct, errors, or ethical concerns.
6. Governing Law
This Agreement is governed by the laws of Switzerland. Any disputes arising under this Agreement shall be resolved in the courts of Zurich, Switzerland.
7. Agreement Acceptance
By submitting a manuscript, the Author acknowledges and agrees to the terms outlined in this Agreement.
Editor-In-Chief
Prof. Dr. Milos Petkovic
